Andrew Allen

Over the course of the last decade, China has taken an aggressive approach towards constructing an economic relationship with Africa. A major aspect of this relationship has been Chinese infrastructure investments in the continent, which provides African nations with low-conditionality access to capital. Although China’s economic activity has led to some economic growth in the region, it nonetheless represents a strategic challenge to the United States’ influence in Africa (Harris 2018). As such, the strategic efforts of the United States vis a vis Chinese investment in Africa should center on two objectives: increasing diplomatic ties with African nations and promoting American investment and trade in the region.

Over the last half decade, there have been several incidents of violence between Nigerian security forces and the Shia group known as the Islamic Movement of Nigeria (IMN). The IMN, are led by the cleric Ibrahim El-Zakzaky. Originally from the northern city of Zaria, El-Zakzaky is a self-professed admirer of the Iranian Islamic Revolution and critic of the Nigerian government. He travelled to Iran in 1980 in order to become a cleric and be able to bring Shi’ism to Nigeria (Campbell 2018). From the 1990s onward, El-Zakzaky has attracted thousands of followers as he promotes the widespread adoption of Islamic law by the Nigerian government, with the ultimate goal of turning it into an Islamic Republic.

International Relations of African Nations

Chinese low conditionality approach to infrastructure loans in Africa has been billed as a great opportunity for developing nations in the region to achieve economic development and growth that would otherwise not be possible. However, despite representing what one Ugandan economist described as an “unrivalled willingness to avail unconditional capital to Africa”, China’s extensive penetration in Africa by way of development-oriented loans comes with a significant amount of risk, both for the host nations as well as the United States and the West (Madowo, 2018).

Background

Ethnic Violence, Insurgency, and Conflict

On October 7th, Brazil will hold the first round of its national elections on the heels of a severe political and economic crisis. A combination of economic failures and rampant corruption have led to widespread disenchantment with Brazil’s political system, and have led to the immense popularity of a candidate who poses a significant threat to democracy in Brazil: a far-right presidential candidate named Jair Bolsonaro

The Brazilian military has a long history of intervening in the nation’s political affairs, a pattern that many believe continues to this day. The first instance of such intervention occurred in 1889 when the military officially declared the end of the rule of then-Emperor Pedro II. During the latter half of the 19th century, Brazil went through a period of drastic societal and institutional transformation that caused the military and agricultural classes to become frustrated with the imperial government (James and Martins, 2018). These frustrations manifested themselves in 1889 when military officers organized and carried out a coup in Rio de Janeiro, leading to the formation of the Republic of Brazil.